Working Title

Working Title

Film4

Film 4

Essays on Representation - What They Should Include

Mise-En-Scene (everything in the scene)

• Stereotypes - Tessa Perkins.
• Props.
• Costume.
• Lighting (backlighting, key light, fill - colours, filters).
• Character.
• Body language.
• Setting.
• Colour.
• Denotation/connotation.
• Iconography (the visual images, symbols, or styles of representation collectively associated with a person, cult, or movement).

Camera

• Angles.
• Movement.
• Framing - where things are positioned.
• Focus.

Editing

• Transitions.
• Effects.
• Speed of transition/pace.
• Length of frames.
• Continuity.
• Shot reverse shot, e.g. in conversation.
• 180 degree rule.
• Narrative time - the main types used are: screen time (how long the story is - amount of time it actually takes), subjective time (feel the same emotions at the same time as the character does), compressed time (doesn't show the irrelevant bits), long take (shot which continues through), simultaneous time (things happening at the same time), slow motion, and flashback.
• Narrative theories (are any of them challenged?).
• Codes (enigma codes, etc).  

Sound

• Diegetic (in scene) and non-diegetic (not in scene).
• Contrapuntal - doesn't match action.
• Parallel - matches action.
• Bridges - link scenes together.

Other Things to Consider

• Audience.
• Describing - analysis (why).
• Intentions.
• Ideas/concepts.
• Institution.
• Genre. 

Mark Scheme

Level 4 = Excellent (A/B)

Level 3 = Proficient (C/D)
Level 2 = Basic (E)
Level 1 = Minimal (U) 

How Does Hollywood Produce, Market, and Exhibit Its Films to Ensure Success?

How Does Hollywood Produce, Market, And Exhibit Its Films to Ensure Success

Glossary

Production - The concept of the film is developed from idea, to script, to filming to editing.

Marketing - Publicity for the film in all countries of release to create interest/hype in the lead up to the theatrical release.

Distribution - Supplying the product/film to cinemas in hardware/software.

Exhibition - The showing of the film to audiences.  


Denotation - Applies to a word's literal meaning - the "dictionary definition". For instance, a dictionary definition of 'snake' is "any of numerous limbless, scaly, elongate reptiles of the suborder Serpentes, comprising venomous and nonvenomous species inhabiting tropical and temperate areas".


Connotation - Indicates the associations or emotional suggestions which link to a particular word. The word 'snake' connotes evil or danger.     


High Production Values - Movies which have a high budget usually have high production values as the resources required have greater investment. "Production values" apply to the film's quality. 

Blockbuster - A film that has an appeal which is broad and popular and has great financial achievement. 

Above-the-line Costs - These are the production costs before a movie has been made. For instance, money is given to the cast members, directors, producers, and screenwriters.  

Below-the-line Costs - These are the physical production costs of the movie where payment is made for the crew, use of locations, photography, etc.  

Media Conglomerate - An extremely large worldwide business owning a large branch of the mass media market in news, publishing books, movies, television, websites, etc.

Subsidiaries - Corporations which are controlled by a bigger and better corporation. For example, Warner Bros. Entertainment, Inc. is a subsidiary of Time Warner. 

Cross-media Convergence and Synergy - The promotion and sale of a product (and all its versions) throughout the various subsidiaries of a media conglomerate. E.g. films, soundtracks, video games. Disney has used cross-media convergence and synergy.

Production Technologies - The variety of digital and analogue technology used to film.

Technological Convergence - The process where new technology is moving towards single platforms delivering multiple media outputs that can be used to reach audiences. E.g. PlayStation 3.

Vertical Integration - The combination in one company of two or more stages of production normally operated by separate companies.

Synergy Marketing - The combination of two separate media texts or products that share similar characteristics so that one helps market the other.

Word-of-mouth Advertising - An informal way in which media products become known by audiences.

Above-the-line Marketing - An advertising technique using specific channels to promote products and services. This strategy makes use of traditional media like newspapers, magazines, radio and television and a commission or fee is payable to the advertising agency on behalf of its clients. 

Below-the-line Marketing - Any promotional activity that does not involve paid use of the media, i.e. in other words it is not media advertising. For example, "below the line" promotional activities include the use of various "point of sale" or in-store sales promotions, the production and use of promotional literature and leaflets, or the attendance at trade exhibitions, shows or events. Example: Levi's use of outdoor promotional activities, videos, plus window and in-store promotions.  

Merchandising - The activity of promoting the sale of goods, esp. by their presentation in retail outlets.  

Viral Marketing - Creating a buzz so that users spread the information for you via word-of-mouth, email, or links on Blogs or websites.

DSN (Digital Screen Network) - Refers to the use of digital technology to capture, distribute, and project motion pictures. A movie can be distributed via hard drives, optical disks (such as DVDs and Blu-ray Discs) or satellite and projected using a digital projector instead of a conventional film projector. Digital cinema is distinct from high-definition television and, in particular, is not dependent on using television or high-definition video standards, aspect ratios, or frame rates.

HD (High Definition) - Refers to an increase in display or visual resolution, e.g. viewing films from a Blu-ray disc. 

Blu-ray - A high resolution video optical disc format.

Digital Distribution - The delivery of media content such as audio, video, software and video games without the use of physical media usually over online delivery mediums, such as the Internet. Digital distribution avoids conventional physical distribution methods, such as paper or DVDs.  

35mm Reels - It is traditional to discuss the length of theatrical motion pictures in terms of "reels." The standard length of a 35mm motion picture reel is 1,000 feet (300m). This length runs approximately 11 minutes at sound speed (24 frames per second) and slightly longer at silent movie speed (which may vary from approximately 16 to 22 frames per second). Most films have visible cues which mark the end of the reel. This allows projectionists running reel-to-reel to change-over to the next reel on the other projector.

Independent Cinema - A term used to describe films made outside the traditional studio system or made by independent producers (e.g., David O. Selznick, Samuel Goldwyn, Walter Wanger) within it. Contemporary independent cinema is generally independently financed; that is, films are made without funding from (and prior to having a contract with) a major distributor.

Mainstream Cinema - Commercial films that are made by major entertainment studios or companies that are owned by international media conglomerates. Because of better financing, these films can afford more expensive actors, wide releases or limited releases, and are sold at popular retail stores. This has become known as the studio system.   

Piracy - Copyright violation of audio-visual works - when unauthorised copies of films, etc, are made.

Niche Audience - The subset of the market on which a specific product is focusing; therefore the market niche defines the specific product features aimed at satisfying specific market needs, as well as the price range, production quality, and the demographics that is intended to impact.  

CGI (Computer-Generated Imagery) - The application of the field of computer graphics or, more specifically, 3D computer graphics to special effects in art, video games, films, television programs, commercials, simulators and simulation generally, and printed media. The visual scenes may be either dynamic or motionless. 

Proliferation - Rapid increase in numbers. 

Narrative Patterns in TV Drama Genres

Narrative Patterns in TV Drama Genres

Narrative Time

Narrative Time

Narrative Theories

Things to Consider in a Narrative

• Codes

• Problem-->Action-->Solution

• Character roles

• Telling a story

• Narrative perspective

• Time

    Tzvetan Todorov proposed that a story starts with a status quo or equilibrium where any possible contrasting forces are balanced, which is disrupted by an event, setting a sequence of events in a chain. Solving problems allows order to be restored in the fictional world.

     Vladimir Propp studied many folk tales and found thirty-one narrative roles and eight character roles.

The eight character roles are:

            

        1. The Villain (s).

        2. The Hero.

        3. The Donor – this person offers an item which has magical powers.

        4. The Helper – the hero is supported by the helper.

        5. The Princess (wanted) – who is the hero’s reward and the person who the villain uses in their schemes.

        6. Princess’s Father – the hero is rewarded by him.

        7. The Dispatcher – the hero is sent on his way by the dispatcher.

        8. The False Hero.

These character roles can relate to all types of narratives. For example, in T.V programmes concerning the news, ‘heroes’ and ‘villains’ are frequently presented, such as Princess Diana and Saddam Hussein.   

·            
Claude Levi-Strauss examined binary oppositions, which are sets of values that have opposite meanings, within narrative structures. For example, good and evil have opposite meanings. Levi-Strauss tried gaining a deeper understanding of themes in narratives.

Roland Barthes examined and decoded how texts were put together. He proposed that to unravel meaning in a text, narrative codes are used. There are five categories of narrative codes:

    1. Action Code – Relates to any action that involves another narrative action. For instance, we speculate what the resolution will be when a criminal draws his gun on a rival.

     2. Enigma Code – Applies to any part of a narrative that hasn’t been made clear in detail which makes the viewers puzzled, making them question certain things that require an explanation.     

     3. Semantic Code – A further meaning, through connotations, within a certain part of the text can be proposed.

   4. Cultural Code – A particular element of the story that applies “to a science or a body of knowledge” – our shared knowledge about the way the world works is closely looked at through the cultural codes.

     5. Symbolic Code.

     Ideology – This is an ordered set of concepts. A comprehensive vision can be associated with an ideology as a way of looking at things – a belief which aids our understanding of the world.

Day and Night

The story links to Todorov's theory as it starts with an equilibrium as Day and Night both seem to be getting on with each other. However, there is a disequilibrium later on as they start to get jealous of each other, which is the disrupting event. A new equilibrium is created when Day and Night find that they are both similar to each other rather than different and unite as one.

Also, parts of Propp's theory relates to the story in several ways. There isn't a specific villain but in the middle of the story when Day and Night get jealous of each other, each of them could be considered a villain towards one another. On the other hand, at the end when they unite as one they both could be considered as heroes because they manage to solve their problems so that each of them can have aspects of both Day and Night. In addition, both Day and Night may be considered helpers too as they both help each other to solve their problems.

Levi-Strauss's theory is associated within the story as well through the clear binary opposites of the characters, Day and Night.

Some of Barthes's theory links to the story through semantic codes. Day has connotations of brightness and bliss whereas Night has connotations of darkness and gloom. Moreover, Day has a symbolic code of positivity but Night has a symbolic code of negativity.

There is an ideology, which is portrayed at the end when Day and Night unite, portraying that everyone should be treated equally and by coming together as one can make things easier so that better things can be achieved.

'After Thomas' Notes

After Thomas is a TV drama which was aired in December, 2006 by ITV - reliable institution so know that the drama is a true story based on a mother who has a child with autism. 

Mise-En-Scene

• Mother - angry, protective, and angry at other people's ignorance and how they are judging her.
• Change of setting from the town scene to the office scene - character is portrayed as a person who is committed to their work as they don't rush out when the firebell is heard. 
• Props in office scene - desk, desk light, computer, etc - items which are found in a standard office workplace. 
• Lighting - very dull at the start. 
• Characters are dressed in normal, everyday clothing.
• Colours - quite dark. Black - depressing, death, low mood. White - heaven, death. Red - danger. 
• Black writing, to say the story is true, stands out well on the white background - see the 'light' in the truth. 

Camera Angles

• Close-ups of the mother and child's face - see expressions and features - scratches on mother's face - child lashed out - emotional difficulties and distress.
• Long shots of the shops at the beginning - shows where the characters are. 
• Over-the-shoulder shot from shop assistant - see the action from her point of view, audience are asked to judge the mother and the mother reinforces this by telling the child not to look. Going through the child's tantrums is an everyday routine.

Camera Movements

• Arc.
• Hand-held shots.
• Zoom - used when child falls. 
• Pan shot - used whilst mother and child are walking to the shop. 

Sound

• Traffic.
• Screams.
• Violin - portrays relationship between mother and child which is contrasted with the child's screams.
• Edited sound - disorientated - blurred and stretched out.
• Sound is quite negative - communicating emotion.
• Diegetic sound doesn't match the non-diegetic sound.
• Sound is magnified - background noise - dangerous situation emphasised.
• Sound sucked back out - different time.
• Contrapuntal sound - the use of the violin doesn't match the dramatic action going on in the scenes at the beginning.

Narratives

• Enigma code (Barthes) produced through the non-matching diegetic sound and non-diegetic sound at the beginning - audience doesn't know what's happened.
• Subjective time - time experienced/felt by the characters is shown through the editing and camera movements - audience experience the event at the same time. 
• Semantic code (Barthes) - the cars going past connote life going by.
• Semantic code - red bus - connotes danger.
• Set in 1993 - allows audience to contextualise.
• Enigma code of red bus, which goes past a second time, foreshadows that something is going to happen. 
• Mother - protagonist (Propp).
• Ideology - 'normal' mother trying to teach her son 'normal' things.
• Slow motion at the beginning - emphasise dramatic action.
• Red bus - real-time - feel emotions that the mother is feeling. 
• Representation of disability and how the mother copes with it. 
• Todorov's theory is challenged - no equilibrium, the story doesn't start straight away - it starts a little into the T.V drama. 
• Action codes (Barthes) - action involving another narrative action. 
• Ideology - show disability through parent's perspective and how difficult it is to cope with ignorance of other people.
• Black and white - binary opposition (Levi-Strauss).
• Main family and 'normal' family - binary opposition.
• Boy (usually worst behaved) - autistic child - and girl - binary opposition.

Editing

• Change of background colour - the transition to a white background - being taken to a different place and time.
• Fast pace editing when mother and child are in the middle of the road - action editing - creates tension for audience - they're sharing the action.

Success Criteria For TV Drama: Representation

Total of 50 marks.

20 marks – Explanation/analysis/argument:

o  Explanation – Description of what is seen in the clip and reasons for the use of certain ideas and what they mean.

o  Analysis – Detailed exploration and a breakdown of the elements within the clip and what the aim for the use of particular techniques was, such as why certain camera movements/angles, sound, editing techniques, etc, were used.

o Argument – Challenging particular theories/concepts and arguing about how certain aspects of theories/concepts are significant, such as the use of stereotypes or Todorov’s, Propp’s, Levi-Strauss’s, and Barthes’s theories.

o  Excellent understanding of the task.

o  Excellent knowledge and understanding of the way that technical aspects are used to construct the clip’s representations.

o  Clearly relevant to the set question.

20 marks – Use of examples:

o   A range from each technical area.

o   Frequent textual analysis from the clip.

o   Relevant/appropriate examples must be used.

o   Focus on set question (representation).

10 marks – Use of terminology:

o   Accurately and relevantly used.

o   Paragraphs and sentences must always be relevant.

o   Spelling, punctuation, and grammar must be accurate.

o   Appropriate, well-structured, and frequent terminology must be used.  

o   Complex issues must be expressed fluently and clearly.   

Editing

Editing

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Camera Movements

Track (or Dolly) - This is when the camera follows a moving subject or the camera is moved itself towards/away from the subject. The camera is usually run down a track of small size (similar to a miniature railway track), which is why the shot is known as a 'track' or a 'tracking' shot, to follow what's going on in the scene. 'Dolly' refers to a tripod on wheels. By using these particular techniques, the camera is stabilised. Therefore, the objects/action in the frame receive all the focus - while the background runs past, the focus stays steady.  

Pan - To follow a subject that's moving or to scan a scene, the camera is pivoted from side to side. Even though the action runs past the camera remains focused. In this way, the speed of what's going on is highlighted in the form of the camera or clear evidence of scope is portrayed, which is mostly used to establish the 'background' or to show the surroundings.

Whip Pan - A pan shot which is unexpected and speedy.

Tilt - The camera is rotated vertically up or down, producing a high or low angle shot.

Rolling - The image is made askew by moving the camera diagonally. Another name for this is a 'Dutch Angle'.

Arc - This when the camera is moved around the subject in a curve.  

Crane Shot - The primary way of moving the camera beyond the ground is using the crane shot. This is when the camera is generally positioned high beyond the ground/action and the camera itself is moved up or down. The camera is raised and lowered onto a stand which is connected to a mechanical arm. Large distances up and down, forwards and backwards, and from side to side can be traversed by the camera by using the crane. 

Overhead - The action within a scene can be looked over by the camera straight from above (kind of like a shot taken from the ceiling).

Aerial Shot - These are a variety of crane shots. A helicopter or plane usually takes this type of shot. Having a camera which is mounted on an aerial support can go into space in every direction, reaching heights which are a lot greater than what a crane can reach. In an aerial shot, another flying object could be captured or a 'birds eye view' of the setting could be taken.

Hand-held Shot - A sense of closeness or realism is conveyed through this type of shot. Therefore, a hand-held shot is usually used in films which are more gritty. But it's still used quite a lot today because more freedom is permitted and by using a steadicam, the shots don't have much of the hand-held, unsteady feel that an individual relates to amateur filming. 

Zoom (Crash Zoom, Reverse Zoom, Reverse Crash Zoom) - Although it does look like the camera is moving, it actually isn't. The focus is pulled so that the object/action gradually seems further away or closer. A crash zoom is when it's done quite rapidly. To make the object/action seem far away the focus reverses in order for a reverse zoom to be taken, and a reverse crash zoom is taken when a reverse zoom happens very quickly.   

Zoom


Crash Zoom   

Reverse Zoom 

Reverse Crash Zoom

   

Camera Angles

Camera Angles