'Skins' - Editing Example: How is Age Represented?

Parallel editing is used to show that the boy and girl are related and have a strong relationship. We can see through the parallel editing that they lead very different teenage lives, showing binary opposite characters. She is coming home; rebelling against house rules and he has been in his own bed. This conforms to Levi Strauss' idea that all narratives have opposites. The two narrative threads come together as she reaches the window and the cutaways show that she relies on him to cover up for her. The parallel editing here then turns into continuity editing in real-time of when the girl is trying to get her brother's attention when she reaches the house, which suggests that this is a 'normal', everyday tendency in the teenagers' lives and that the sequence follows a linear narrative structure.

At the start of the sequence Todorov's theory is conformed as there is a disequilibrium, which is shown through how the protagonist is positioned between the male and female bodies on the quilt and is awake before the alarm actually rings. This suggests that he is unsettled, thus conforming teenage stereotypes of them having their own problematic issues to deal with. The target audience also can relate themselves to this.

Action editing is used to create a montage of the protagonist's work-out through the use of short takes and compressed time. The part where he is using the weights conforms stereotypes of teenagers as it suggests that the routine helps him to keep fit and he is conscious of his physical appearance in order to be able to attract the opposite sex. Also, the montage shows how his life is hectic and quick-paced which contributes to the idea that teenagers' lives are quite busy.  

An eye-line match is used when the protagonist is looking out the window at the woman in the opposite house who is undressed. This indicates that he is sexually charged and conforms teenage stereotypes as the eye-line match portrays how intensely he's watching the naked woman. 

Shot-reverse-shots are used in the conversation between the protagonist and his father with cuts of the protagonist's sister coming in the house, suggesting that there is a neccessity to get her inside without her father noticing. This conforms to teenage stereotypes as the shot-reverse-shots and cuts at this point highlight the characters' rebellious and mischievous side. After these shots, short action shots of the girl getting dressed into her school uniform are used to portray that she is rushing and that there is no time as she's only just got back to the house. The fact that she's getting changed into her school uniform suggests that she is still a young girl who isn't expected to go out all night, so teenage stereotypes are conformed as she is breaking the house rules and is meant to be innocent.

'Skins' - Sound Example: How is Age Represented?

The dialogue between the father and the son shows a reversal in audience expectations. We see the father shouting and swearing at the teenager, which is normally something we would expect to hear from the teenager. The father's aggressive reaction to the diegetic rock music plays to the stereotype that teenagers play loud music and are inconsiderate to older people. His reaction also plays to the stereotype that teenagers frustrate their parents.

Diegetic sound is also used of the digital alarm clock ringing at the start of the sequence. The audience notice that the protagonist is already awake before the alarm actually rings, which suggests that he is troubled and cannot sleep. This conforms stereotypes of teenagers as this age group does usually have their own troubles at this stage in their life.

Once the alarm clock rings, repetitive, non-diegetic sound is communicated to the audience as diegetic sound as the music fits in with the protagonist's routine because of the beat. Therefore, stereotypes of teenagers are challenged because teenagers are usually stereotyped as being unorganised and not having a particular routine.

The music then bridges over to the next scene of the protagonist's sister walking up the street where magnified sound is used as the audience hear the sound of her heels. This suggests that she is trying to be an adult by wearing heels and conforms stereotypes of teenagers as they are stereotyped as wanting to try to act older than their actal age.    

'Skins' - Camera Angles/Movements Example: How is Age Represented?

The idea that teenagers are curious about sex is reinforced through the over-the-shoulder shot used when he is looking at the older woman getting dressed through the window over the road. The shot is hand-held so that the audience can have the same experience as the teenage main character. The following close-up shot shows a lack of expression suggesting that this is routine and he has become disaffected by the image. This conforms to the stereotype that teenagers' lives are surrounded by sex and it plays a big part of their lives.

A track shot out of the driveway is used when the protagonist's sister is walking up the street. This type of shot may have been used to portray how other people in the neighbourhood see her and show that she is conscious of herself. Therefore, the shot draws attention to the fact that she has a secret to hide as her body language shows that she doesn't want to be seen and known for having gone out at night, so stereotypes of teenagers is conformed and her rebellious, mischievous side is brought out again at this point. 

In addition, a high angle shot of the protagonist's sister below looking up to the protogonist is used. This portrays that she is in a vulnerable position as she relies on her brother. The low angle shot of the protagonist suggests that he has power which conforms stereotypes of younger sisters usually relying on their older brothers for support. Another way in which this view is supported is through the use of the close-up shot of the 'OK' signal that the protagonist gives to his sister, showing that he is covering up for her. 

The close-up shot of the protagonist smirking and looking at the door suggests that he enjoys this regular routine of covering up for his sister as it frustrates his father. His father's frustration is portrayed through the use of the zoom as the more angrier he gets, the closer the camera zooms in. Teenage stereotypes are conformed here as the protagonist's mischievous side is shown too as teenagers are stereotyped as being misbehaved and causing unnecessary trouble.

'Skins' - Mise-En-Scene Example: How is Age Represented?

The mise-en-scene of the protagonist's bedroom challenges and conforms to stereotypical views about youth culture. The establishing shot suggests that the series targets a teenage audience and it will follow the life and experiences of a teenager. The duvet cover shown is of a double bed with a naked man and woman, suggesting that this age group is sexually charged. The protagonist is positioned in the middle of the two bodies suggesting that he is sexually inexperienced. It could also be suggesting that he is alone and confused about his sexuality, which conforms to teenage stereotypes. In this shot, natural lighting is used to give a sense of realism so the teenage audience identifies with the life of the protagonist.

A way in which the mise-en-scene challenges the stereotypical view of teenagers is through the protagonist's tidy and simple bedroom, as teenagers are usually stereotyped as being messy. An example that backs up the fact that stereotypes of teenagers is challenged is how the protagonist's draws are organised and neat, portraying that he likes a sense of order. This makes the audience's view of this age group change as they realise that he is different compared to other teenagers. 

However, teenagers' stereotypical view is conformed as the protagonist is contrasted with another character who is assumed to be his sister. She appears in the sequence not well-groomed as she's dressed in clothes from the night before and her make-up is smudged. In this way, a rebellious side of teenagers is shown as she sneaks in. Therefore, this character acts as a binary opposite against the protagonist.    

Wild Child

Wild Child

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TV Drama Revision Booklet

Tv Drama Revision Booklet

Editing Terminology

Action Match - A piece of movement/action is continued between shots through cuts, portraying smooth action even though there are cuts in the shot.

Continuity Editing - Real-time movement in a narative is highlighted and a sense of realism is formed when a narrative is presented in chronological order with a linear structure.

Cross-cutting (parallel editing) - Where cuts are made between two different scenes taking place simultaneously in two different settings to depict a difference or similarity between them.

Cut - Moving from one shot to the next.

Cutaway - This type of shot isn't really required as it's a brief shot which cuts into a scene. An associated individual, action, or object is shown before cutting back to the initial shot. This isn't necessarily part of the main scene. 

Dissolve - The next shot begins to appear on top of the initial shot more and more once you can fully see the next shot. This is used mostly to connect two individuals or two scenes together, or to portray the continuity of time.

Ellipsis - Where narrative elements are either condensed or taken away to make the action faster.

Eyeline Match - While cutting from a person to what they see, their eyeline is maintained so that the audience empathise with the characters as they are put into the characters' position.

Fade - A white/black screen is left when an image slowly fades and disappears. If an image is faded to a black screen, it's suggested that an event has ended or time has moved on. A dream sequence is usually portrayed when an image is faded to a white screen. 

Graphic Match - Cuts are used from one shot to the next that visually look similar (perhaps related by similar colours, shapes, etc) to portray a strong relationship between two scenes.

Jump Cuts - A piece of action is left out when a cut transfers to an extremely similar section of the same scene. The audience become confused or a character is shown to be confused through the use of jump cuts.

Linear Narrative - A narrative which has a particular order, including a beginning, middle, and end. A direct, chronological depiction of events is provided which lead to a single resolution, making it straightforward for the audience to follow.

Long Take - A shot which is able to stay on the screen for a long period of time before it's cut to slow a scene's pace, so that it's more calmer.  

Montage - A sequence of shots which are edited at the same time to portray that time is moving on and an event is taking place during that time.

Short Take - An image stays on screen for a short period before cutting to something else so that the action is faster, creating an exciting and dramatic effect.

Shot Reverse Shot - A cut is made between two individuals who are talking (instead of including the two of them in one still mid shot). This helps to create a distinction between them and show how they are different, and how they react to certain situations.

Slow Motion - Action is slowed down for a comical or emotive outcome.
 

Split Screen - The screen is divided into two or more sections to portray events which are happening all together.

Superimpose - Writing/symbols or pictures appear above an image so that they are both noticeable during the same moment which increases the total information the audience have in a single shot. 

Visual Effects - These are usually influenced by what a character's responses are to the special effects.  

Wipe - An image wipes the next image off the screen. This proposes that a particular scene or character which pushes the other one off the screen is more significant and dominant. Wipes can go in different directions and be different shapes.

The Role of a Website For a Film Company

• To advertise films.
• To give information about certain films.
• To display/celebrate awards and achievement.
• To build a relationship with fans - fan interaction.
• To provide information about a company, including background information.
• To provide contact details.
• To give information about the latest developments - schemes/projects.
• To provide 'fan-zine' information for films - clips, photos, blog posts.
• To provide an archive/catalogue of previous projects. 
• General marketing and publicity.

Evaluation of the Working Title Website

• The homepage includes five advertisements of five films which are at the top of the page so are noticed first when the user gets on to the website because they almost take up the whole of the top part of the page. This is ideal in order to promote the films well as the advertisements are quite eye-catching through the use of their bold fonts, colours, and large-scale images.
• Further down, the homepage includes images and information about another five films but there is only a minimum amount of key information so the users aren't put off reading it. If they do want to read further there are links beneath.
• On the left-hand side of the homepage there is a column which shows the latest news and links to further reading of a particular subject. This is useful because the users are able to quickly scan the information without losing too much time and if they want to read further they can simply click on the link.
• The 'Films' page, in my opinion, looks too simplistic as the first impression I got when I first clicked on to the page was that it looks quite dull. Perhaps the colour scheme should be changed in order for it to look more attention-grabbing and the fonts could be made bigger and bolder. However, on the positive side it's easy to navigate on this page as it isn't crowded with lots of information so things are able to be found easily.   
• By clicking on the images to view the trailers on the 'Trailers' page is quite unique as when you hover over an image the name of the film appears. But it could be quite time-consuming to find a trailer for a particular film because you would have to hover over all the images in order to be able to find the required film trailer, as you can't always tell what film you are looking for through the images.
• The 'News' page is quite effective as it simply lists the news articles. In addition, there is a news archive on the top-left of the page so you can look at news from previous years. Also, you can filter the search in order to be able to find the article quickly as there are drop-down menus as to whether if you want to look at old news or theatre news, etc.
• There are features on the website, making it entertaining and interactive for the users, such as the 'Dilemma Solver', which is based on 'Bridget Jone's Diary', and 'Matching Pairs', which is a game based on 'Mr Bean's Holiday'. 
• An option for users to subscribe to Working Title's newsletter by entering their email address is available. This is ideal if a person is interested in Working Title productions as it saves them from going on to the website every time they want to read about the news and other subjects to do with Working Title. 
• A search bar is displayed in the top-right corner of every page. I think this could be bigger for the users to easily notice as users' attention is usually directed to the main information which is displayed in the middle of the page. Therefore, if the search bar is bigger they can just type in what they are looking for straight away so that the results are broken down to their particular search.
• When I went on to the 'Production page' for 'Billiot Elliot: The Musical', the way to view the images is quite efficient because if you click on one image you can just simply click on the left or right arrow to view the next images. Whereas on other websites I've found that you have to keep clicking off an image and on to the next image to view it. This is quite time-consuming but the Working Title's website loads images quickly in a clear, large-scale, professional format.    
  

How Does the Opening of 'My Boy Jack' Appeal to Audiences?

The opening of 'My Boy Jack' appeals to audiences by having a big, well-known star in the TV drama, which is Daniel Radcliffe from the Harry Potter movies so it appeals to mass audiences of both adolescents and adults. It must have had a high production budget for it to be a high quality film as the performance style is realistic.

However, because it's a war film it could be mainly targeted at males, from a stereotypical perspective, as the sequence shown only depicts men, not women. 

On the other hand, 'My Boy Jack' may appeal to the older generation mostly because the TV drama is set during World War One, making it part of the historical genre, so they are able to relate to it more, which links to personal identity (finding that some aspects of a text reflects yourself) which is part of the audience's uses and gratifications, due to their social demographics. In addition, this links to audience pleasures - genre communities because every genre has their 'own' audience. For 'My Boy Jack' an older audience is more applicable due to the counter-reading of the film being part of the historical genre. The time when the story is set is evident through the mise-en-scene as old-fashioned costumes are worn. There are soldiers in the navy shown wearing a military-style uniform and the close-up shots of the cars indicate the time when the story is set too. A famous writer, Rudyard Kipling, is presented in the TV drama which is another reason why the TV drama relates to the older generation, as Kipling was a well-known and an important person during the time of the war.      

Audience

'My Boy Jack' Notes

The TV Drama Genre

• Set during World War One.
• Historical genre.
• Music, costumes, and props are old-fashioned so it's clear that the TV drama is part of the historical genre.
• Suitable for adults as well as adolescents as the star of the show is Daniel Radcliffe so it appeals to a wide audience.
• However, because it's a war film, it could be mainly targeted at males (stereotypical view).

Characters and Performance

• Realistic style of performance.
• Assume that the people are posh, educated, well-behaved, and that they are all mainly upper-class young adults who are British.
• In the particular sequence shown there are only men, but no women.  

Editing

• Time is important to context - against them - fade to close-up of the watch suggests this idea.
• To highlight the father's rush, fast cuts are used.
• A tense, slow mood is portrayed through long cuts of the main character.
• Clear conversation is shown through the use of the shot reverse shot in the room.
• Continuity editing portrays a chronological order, showing that time is passing.
• Experience protagonist's view through the eyeline match when he's reading the letters.
• Superimpose is used when the main character is looking at the letters - experience his view and the audience are informed of his weak eyesight and at the start in the credits as well to set the scene (1914).
• Two different events are shown through parallel editing.
• Cutaway shot of the watch again - isn't really necessary but highlights that time is still important. 
• Ellipsis - father isn't portrayed walking around - action is sped up. 
• Parallel editing of the father in the car and his son in the medical room portrays their relationship.  
• Close-up shots of the cars indicate the time when the story is set.  

Mise-En-Scene

• Setting - countryside, medical room, and mansion.
• Formal clothes - upper-class.
• Soldiers in the navy - military-style uniform.
• Body language - father is speed-walking which shows that he's in a rush.
• Lighting outdoors - sunny, bright.
• Lighting in medical room - dimly lit.
• Mansion - light gets darker as the camera goes inwards - spotlight.
• Colours - bright and vibrant outside which contrasts with the dull colours used in the medical room.
• Old-fashioned costumes.
• Fingers on the steering wheel show that the character is nervous and anxious.
• The first thing noticed about the main character is that he's wearing spectacles.

Sound

• Diegetic sound is used when the clock is ticking.
• Noise of the car - asynchronous sound, sound which is indigenous to the action but not precisely synchronized with the action (foreshadowing).
• Jolly music is used which relates to the sunny weather.
• String instruments are used to portray that the characters are nervous and anxious.
• Non-diegetic sound is used too.
• When there is more dialogue the music goes quieter. 
• Sound bridge - whoever clock belongs to - waiting for person in next scene.
• Adventurous music - rich.

Narrative Sequence

• Real-time is used when the clock at the start appears again.
• Long corridor = long wait.

Background Information

• One-off production drama.
• Daniel Radcliffe stars in it so the drama must have had a high budget.
• Set in 1914 - World War One.
• The father in the drama is a writer which suggests that he's well-known and famous.

Audience

• Mostly for the older generation as it's a war film.
• Daniel Radcliffe stars in the drama so appeals to a mass audience - pulls in a younger audience because of the big star - higher budget = better quality.
• The message conveyed is that if you're not born into the correct family with good physical conditions it's hard to get a high-rank job. 

Camera Angles and Shots

• Close-ups of the clock ticking.
• High angle shot of the whole room - high authority.
• Close-up of letters.
• Mid angle shots - realism.
• Point-of-view shots.
• Low angle shots - importance of characters and authority.
• Over-the-shoulder shots - conversation, point-of-view.
• Extreme close-up of the second-hand on the watch - time is going.
• Close-up of wheels turning on car - speed and time.
• Close-up of facial expression of the character in the car portrays their emotions - he also has glasses on like Daniel Radcliffe.
• Low angle shot - speed of car - determination - not going to let things get in the way.
• High angle shot of the three boys looking down on the papers.
• Hand-held shot of when the man is collecting the forms - we are further down - our eyeline is in line with Daniel Radcliffe's eyeline so we are empathising with him. Daniel Radcliffe's form is folded - opposition - meticulous (particular).
• Close-up of Radcliffe - wearing glasses too - links to the shot before of his father and his glasses.
• Unsteady camera = uncertainty.

Dialogue

• Not much conversation.
• Poshly spoken - matches characters' personalities.
• Authentic (realistic), old-fashioned.
• Rehersed - realistic.
• "Sir" - not a strong relationship.

Representation of Social Class

• Formal language and accent - posh.
• Formal dress.
• Dialogue - father is a writer - lower-class? An over-the-shoulder shot is used to see the other character's reaction to Racliffe's character's job - snobbery.
• Fade-up on expensive, golden-crusted watch - time is against them - late. Watch belongs to the King who is waiting for a visit from Rudyard Kipling.
• Aristocracy - King doesn't like to be kept waiting.
• Wealthy - polished Rolls Royce car.
• Open green fields - freedom, space.
• Costumes of the three boys don't show a difference in class as they are dressed similarly - equality.
• Low panning shot - wealth, power. 
• Title screen portrays the grand estate - class. 

Working Title

Working Title

Film4

Film 4

Essays on Representation - What They Should Include

Mise-En-Scene (everything in the scene)

• Stereotypes - Tessa Perkins.
• Props.
• Costume.
• Lighting (backlighting, key light, fill - colours, filters).
• Character.
• Body language.
• Setting.
• Colour.
• Denotation/connotation.
• Iconography (the visual images, symbols, or styles of representation collectively associated with a person, cult, or movement).

Camera

• Angles.
• Movement.
• Framing - where things are positioned.
• Focus.

Editing

• Transitions.
• Effects.
• Speed of transition/pace.
• Length of frames.
• Continuity.
• Shot reverse shot, e.g. in conversation.
• 180 degree rule.
• Narrative time - the main types used are: screen time (how long the story is - amount of time it actually takes), subjective time (feel the same emotions at the same time as the character does), compressed time (doesn't show the irrelevant bits), long take (shot which continues through), simultaneous time (things happening at the same time), slow motion, and flashback.
• Narrative theories (are any of them challenged?).
• Codes (enigma codes, etc).  

Sound

• Diegetic (in scene) and non-diegetic (not in scene).
• Contrapuntal - doesn't match action.
• Parallel - matches action.
• Bridges - link scenes together.

Other Things to Consider

• Audience.
• Describing - analysis (why).
• Intentions.
• Ideas/concepts.
• Institution.
• Genre. 

Mark Scheme

Level 4 = Excellent (A/B)

Level 3 = Proficient (C/D)
Level 2 = Basic (E)
Level 1 = Minimal (U) 

How Does Hollywood Produce, Market, and Exhibit Its Films to Ensure Success?

How Does Hollywood Produce, Market, And Exhibit Its Films to Ensure Success

Glossary

Production - The concept of the film is developed from idea, to script, to filming to editing.

Marketing - Publicity for the film in all countries of release to create interest/hype in the lead up to the theatrical release.

Distribution - Supplying the product/film to cinemas in hardware/software.

Exhibition - The showing of the film to audiences.  


Denotation - Applies to a word's literal meaning - the "dictionary definition". For instance, a dictionary definition of 'snake' is "any of numerous limbless, scaly, elongate reptiles of the suborder Serpentes, comprising venomous and nonvenomous species inhabiting tropical and temperate areas".


Connotation - Indicates the associations or emotional suggestions which link to a particular word. The word 'snake' connotes evil or danger.     


High Production Values - Movies which have a high budget usually have high production values as the resources required have greater investment. "Production values" apply to the film's quality. 

Blockbuster - A film that has an appeal which is broad and popular and has great financial achievement. 

Above-the-line Costs - These are the production costs before a movie has been made. For instance, money is given to the cast members, directors, producers, and screenwriters.  

Below-the-line Costs - These are the physical production costs of the movie where payment is made for the crew, use of locations, photography, etc.  

Media Conglomerate - An extremely large worldwide business owning a large branch of the mass media market in news, publishing books, movies, television, websites, etc.

Subsidiaries - Corporations which are controlled by a bigger and better corporation. For example, Warner Bros. Entertainment, Inc. is a subsidiary of Time Warner. 

Cross-media Convergence and Synergy - The promotion and sale of a product (and all its versions) throughout the various subsidiaries of a media conglomerate. E.g. films, soundtracks, video games. Disney has used cross-media convergence and synergy.

Production Technologies - The variety of digital and analogue technology used to film.

Technological Convergence - The process where new technology is moving towards single platforms delivering multiple media outputs that can be used to reach audiences. E.g. PlayStation 3.

Vertical Integration - The combination in one company of two or more stages of production normally operated by separate companies.

Synergy Marketing - The combination of two separate media texts or products that share similar characteristics so that one helps market the other.

Word-of-mouth Advertising - An informal way in which media products become known by audiences.

Above-the-line Marketing - An advertising technique using specific channels to promote products and services. This strategy makes use of traditional media like newspapers, magazines, radio and television and a commission or fee is payable to the advertising agency on behalf of its clients. 

Below-the-line Marketing - Any promotional activity that does not involve paid use of the media, i.e. in other words it is not media advertising. For example, "below the line" promotional activities include the use of various "point of sale" or in-store sales promotions, the production and use of promotional literature and leaflets, or the attendance at trade exhibitions, shows or events. Example: Levi's use of outdoor promotional activities, videos, plus window and in-store promotions.  

Merchandising - The activity of promoting the sale of goods, esp. by their presentation in retail outlets.  

Viral Marketing - Creating a buzz so that users spread the information for you via word-of-mouth, email, or links on Blogs or websites.

DSN (Digital Screen Network) - Refers to the use of digital technology to capture, distribute, and project motion pictures. A movie can be distributed via hard drives, optical disks (such as DVDs and Blu-ray Discs) or satellite and projected using a digital projector instead of a conventional film projector. Digital cinema is distinct from high-definition television and, in particular, is not dependent on using television or high-definition video standards, aspect ratios, or frame rates.

HD (High Definition) - Refers to an increase in display or visual resolution, e.g. viewing films from a Blu-ray disc. 

Blu-ray - A high resolution video optical disc format.

Digital Distribution - The delivery of media content such as audio, video, software and video games without the use of physical media usually over online delivery mediums, such as the Internet. Digital distribution avoids conventional physical distribution methods, such as paper or DVDs.  

35mm Reels - It is traditional to discuss the length of theatrical motion pictures in terms of "reels." The standard length of a 35mm motion picture reel is 1,000 feet (300m). This length runs approximately 11 minutes at sound speed (24 frames per second) and slightly longer at silent movie speed (which may vary from approximately 16 to 22 frames per second). Most films have visible cues which mark the end of the reel. This allows projectionists running reel-to-reel to change-over to the next reel on the other projector.

Independent Cinema - A term used to describe films made outside the traditional studio system or made by independent producers (e.g., David O. Selznick, Samuel Goldwyn, Walter Wanger) within it. Contemporary independent cinema is generally independently financed; that is, films are made without funding from (and prior to having a contract with) a major distributor.

Mainstream Cinema - Commercial films that are made by major entertainment studios or companies that are owned by international media conglomerates. Because of better financing, these films can afford more expensive actors, wide releases or limited releases, and are sold at popular retail stores. This has become known as the studio system.   

Piracy - Copyright violation of audio-visual works - when unauthorised copies of films, etc, are made.

Niche Audience - The subset of the market on which a specific product is focusing; therefore the market niche defines the specific product features aimed at satisfying specific market needs, as well as the price range, production quality, and the demographics that is intended to impact.  

CGI (Computer-Generated Imagery) - The application of the field of computer graphics or, more specifically, 3D computer graphics to special effects in art, video games, films, television programs, commercials, simulators and simulation generally, and printed media. The visual scenes may be either dynamic or motionless. 

Proliferation - Rapid increase in numbers. 

Narrative Patterns in TV Drama Genres

Narrative Patterns in TV Drama Genres

Narrative Time

Narrative Time

Narrative Theories

Things to Consider in a Narrative

• Codes

• Problem-->Action-->Solution

• Character roles

• Telling a story

• Narrative perspective

• Time

    Tzvetan Todorov proposed that a story starts with a status quo or equilibrium where any possible contrasting forces are balanced, which is disrupted by an event, setting a sequence of events in a chain. Solving problems allows order to be restored in the fictional world.

     Vladimir Propp studied many folk tales and found thirty-one narrative roles and eight character roles.

The eight character roles are:

            

        1. The Villain (s).

        2. The Hero.

        3. The Donor – this person offers an item which has magical powers.

        4. The Helper – the hero is supported by the helper.

        5. The Princess (wanted) – who is the hero’s reward and the person who the villain uses in their schemes.

        6. Princess’s Father – the hero is rewarded by him.

        7. The Dispatcher – the hero is sent on his way by the dispatcher.

        8. The False Hero.

These character roles can relate to all types of narratives. For example, in T.V programmes concerning the news, ‘heroes’ and ‘villains’ are frequently presented, such as Princess Diana and Saddam Hussein.   

·            
Claude Levi-Strauss examined binary oppositions, which are sets of values that have opposite meanings, within narrative structures. For example, good and evil have opposite meanings. Levi-Strauss tried gaining a deeper understanding of themes in narratives.

Roland Barthes examined and decoded how texts were put together. He proposed that to unravel meaning in a text, narrative codes are used. There are five categories of narrative codes:

    1. Action Code – Relates to any action that involves another narrative action. For instance, we speculate what the resolution will be when a criminal draws his gun on a rival.

     2. Enigma Code – Applies to any part of a narrative that hasn’t been made clear in detail which makes the viewers puzzled, making them question certain things that require an explanation.     

     3. Semantic Code – A further meaning, through connotations, within a certain part of the text can be proposed.

   4. Cultural Code – A particular element of the story that applies “to a science or a body of knowledge” – our shared knowledge about the way the world works is closely looked at through the cultural codes.

     5. Symbolic Code.

     Ideology – This is an ordered set of concepts. A comprehensive vision can be associated with an ideology as a way of looking at things – a belief which aids our understanding of the world.

Day and Night

The story links to Todorov's theory as it starts with an equilibrium as Day and Night both seem to be getting on with each other. However, there is a disequilibrium later on as they start to get jealous of each other, which is the disrupting event. A new equilibrium is created when Day and Night find that they are both similar to each other rather than different and unite as one.

Also, parts of Propp's theory relates to the story in several ways. There isn't a specific villain but in the middle of the story when Day and Night get jealous of each other, each of them could be considered a villain towards one another. On the other hand, at the end when they unite as one they both could be considered as heroes because they manage to solve their problems so that each of them can have aspects of both Day and Night. In addition, both Day and Night may be considered helpers too as they both help each other to solve their problems.

Levi-Strauss's theory is associated within the story as well through the clear binary opposites of the characters, Day and Night.

Some of Barthes's theory links to the story through semantic codes. Day has connotations of brightness and bliss whereas Night has connotations of darkness and gloom. Moreover, Day has a symbolic code of positivity but Night has a symbolic code of negativity.

There is an ideology, which is portrayed at the end when Day and Night unite, portraying that everyone should be treated equally and by coming together as one can make things easier so that better things can be achieved.

'After Thomas' Notes

After Thomas is a TV drama which was aired in December, 2006 by ITV - reliable institution so know that the drama is a true story based on a mother who has a child with autism. 

Mise-En-Scene

• Mother - angry, protective, and angry at other people's ignorance and how they are judging her.
• Change of setting from the town scene to the office scene - character is portrayed as a person who is committed to their work as they don't rush out when the firebell is heard. 
• Props in office scene - desk, desk light, computer, etc - items which are found in a standard office workplace. 
• Lighting - very dull at the start. 
• Characters are dressed in normal, everyday clothing.
• Colours - quite dark. Black - depressing, death, low mood. White - heaven, death. Red - danger. 
• Black writing, to say the story is true, stands out well on the white background - see the 'light' in the truth. 

Camera Angles

• Close-ups of the mother and child's face - see expressions and features - scratches on mother's face - child lashed out - emotional difficulties and distress.
• Long shots of the shops at the beginning - shows where the characters are. 
• Over-the-shoulder shot from shop assistant - see the action from her point of view, audience are asked to judge the mother and the mother reinforces this by telling the child not to look. Going through the child's tantrums is an everyday routine.

Camera Movements

• Arc.
• Hand-held shots.
• Zoom - used when child falls. 
• Pan shot - used whilst mother and child are walking to the shop. 

Sound

• Traffic.
• Screams.
• Violin - portrays relationship between mother and child which is contrasted with the child's screams.
• Edited sound - disorientated - blurred and stretched out.
• Sound is quite negative - communicating emotion.
• Diegetic sound doesn't match the non-diegetic sound.
• Sound is magnified - background noise - dangerous situation emphasised.
• Sound sucked back out - different time.
• Contrapuntal sound - the use of the violin doesn't match the dramatic action going on in the scenes at the beginning.

Narratives

• Enigma code (Barthes) produced through the non-matching diegetic sound and non-diegetic sound at the beginning - audience doesn't know what's happened.
• Subjective time - time experienced/felt by the characters is shown through the editing and camera movements - audience experience the event at the same time. 
• Semantic code (Barthes) - the cars going past connote life going by.
• Semantic code - red bus - connotes danger.
• Set in 1993 - allows audience to contextualise.
• Enigma code of red bus, which goes past a second time, foreshadows that something is going to happen. 
• Mother - protagonist (Propp).
• Ideology - 'normal' mother trying to teach her son 'normal' things.
• Slow motion at the beginning - emphasise dramatic action.
• Red bus - real-time - feel emotions that the mother is feeling. 
• Representation of disability and how the mother copes with it. 
• Todorov's theory is challenged - no equilibrium, the story doesn't start straight away - it starts a little into the T.V drama. 
• Action codes (Barthes) - action involving another narrative action. 
• Ideology - show disability through parent's perspective and how difficult it is to cope with ignorance of other people.
• Black and white - binary opposition (Levi-Strauss).
• Main family and 'normal' family - binary opposition.
• Boy (usually worst behaved) - autistic child - and girl - binary opposition.

Editing

• Change of background colour - the transition to a white background - being taken to a different place and time.
• Fast pace editing when mother and child are in the middle of the road - action editing - creates tension for audience - they're sharing the action.